Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) have transcended their origins as gaming novelties to become transformative forces across industries that few could have predicted a decade ago. While the gaming applications grabbed early headlines, these immersive technologies have quietly revolutionized sectors from healthcare to education, architecture to retail—reshaping not just how we work, but how we experience reality itself. The implications stretch far beyond entertainment, touching nearly every aspect of human experience and professional endeavor in ways both subtle and profound.
The Medical Revolution Nobody Saw Coming
Surgeons now rehearse complex procedures on virtual patients before ever making an incision. At Stanford Medical Center, neurosurgeons reduced critical errors by 40% after implementing VR training protocols for brain surgery simulations. The technology allows them to practice on digital twins of actual patients’ brains, constructed from MRI and CT scans. This personalized approach represents a paradigm shift from traditional surgical training methods.
But surgical training barely scratches the surface. Exposure therapy through VR has transformed treatment for PTSD, phobias, and anxiety disorders. Patients can confront their fears—whether heights, crowds, or combat flashbacks—in controlled environments where therapists modulate intensity with precision impossible in traditional therapy. The results? A University of Southern California study found that 76% of veterans with combat-related PTSD showed significant symptom reduction after just six weeks of VR therapy. Some patients who had resisted traditional treatments for years found breakthrough moments within virtual environments.
Pain management represents perhaps the most unexpected application. Burn victims at Harborview Medical Center in Seattle enter “SnowWorld“—a virtual arctic environment—during wound care. The immersive distraction reduces pain perception by up to 50% in some patients, outperforming opioid medications in certain cases without side effects. Children undergoing chemotherapy have shown similar responses when immersed in interactive virtual worlds during treatment. This non-pharmacological approach to pain management could revolutionize care for millions suffering from chronic conditions.
Rehabilitation has embraced these technologies with remarkable results. Stroke patients regaining motor control through gamified VR therapy show 35% faster recovery rates compared to conventional physical therapy alone. The constant feedback, precise measurement, and engaging nature of VR exercises maintain patient motivation through otherwise grueling recovery processes. Patients report looking forward to rehabilitation sessions they once dreaded.
Reimagining Education Beyond Classrooms
“We don’t just read about history anymore—we stand in it,” explains Dr. Maya Hernandez, education technology researcher at MIT. Her team developed a VR program where students witness the signing of the Declaration of Independence, interact with historical figures, and explore 18th-century Philadelphia. Knowledge retention increased 27% compared to traditional teaching methods. More significantly, students demonstrated deeper empathetic understanding of historical contexts and motivations—a dimension often lost in textbook learning.
Chemistry students manipulate molecular structures with their hands, exploring bond angles and electron configurations spatially. Aspiring mechanics disassemble virtual engines without wasting materials. Medical students dissect anatomical structures repeatedly, viewing systems layer by layer with the ability to toggle between healthy and pathological states. These applications deliver experiential learning once limited by physical resources, geography, or safety concerns.
Remote collaboration through shared AR/VR spaces has eliminated educational barriers. Rural students now join specialized labs at prestigious universities. Students in Nairobi work alongside peers in Tokyo and Stockholm, collaborating within the same virtual workspace despite being separated by thousands of miles. This democratization of access transcends traditional educational inequities and exposes students to diverse perspectives impossible to replicate in physically constrained classrooms.
Language acquisition through immersive VR has demonstrated particular promise. Rather than memorizing vocabulary lists, students navigate virtual markets in Barcelona or family dinners in Tokyo, engaging in contextual conversations with AI language partners. Studies show immersive language learning produces 34% better retention and significantly higher confidence in practical application compared to traditional methods. The emotional engagement of “being there” creates neural connections traditional classroom environments simply cannot match.
Special education has discovered powerful applications. Children with autism spectrum disorders practice social interactions in controlled, gradually intensifying virtual scenarios before confronting overwhelming real-world situations. Students with ADHD demonstrate improved focus during VR learning sessions, while those with severe anxiety find educational participation more accessible through avatar-mediated interaction. These technologies offer personalized learning pathways once considered impossibly resource-intensive.
Architecture and Construction: Building Before Breaking Ground
The construction industry—historically slow to adopt new technologies—has embraced AR/VR with surprising enthusiasm. Architects now walk clients through photorealistic buildings before a single brick is laid. Engineering teams identify structural problems by examining virtual models at full scale, reducing costly mid-construction changes by up to 25%.
“We adjusted the atrium height after experiencing how oppressive it felt in VR,” notes renowned architect Sophia Chen. “That simple change, which would have been a million-dollar mistake to fix after construction, cost us nothing to modify virtually.” Client satisfaction has similarly improved, with expectation misalignments decreasing dramatically when stakeholders can literally walk through spaces rather than interpret traditional blueprints or even 3D renderings on flat screens.
AR has revolutionized on-site construction through spatial computing. Workers wearing AR glasses see exactly where components should be placed, with measurements and instructions overlaid directly onto their field of view. The technology has reduced installation errors by 31% and decreased construction time by nearly 15% on projects where it’s been implemented. Complex assembly sequences that once required constant reference to printed manuals can now be visualized step-by-step in real-time, with computer vision systems confirming correct installation before proceeding.
Building maintenance has been similarly transformed. Facility managers can “see” through walls to locate exactly where plumbing runs or electrical systems hide, thanks to AR overlays of building information models (BIM). Repair technicians receive visual guidance from remote experts who see exactly what they see, annotating the shared visual field in real-time. This application has reduced diagnostic time by up to 70% while improving repair accuracy—extending infrastructure lifespans and reducing operational costs.
Urban planning has embraced these technologies to democratize the development process. Proposed changes to neighborhoods can be experienced by community members before approval, allowing citizens to provide informed feedback based on virtual walkthroughs rather than technical descriptions or artistic renderings. Several European cities have made this community VR review mandatory for major development projects, fundamentally shifting the power dynamics of urban development toward more inclusive processes.
Retail’s Mixed Reality Makeover
The pandemic accelerated retail’s VR/AR adoption by necessity, but the applications have outlived their emergency origins. Virtual try-ons have transformed shopping, with companies like Warby Parker letting customers sample dozens of glasses frames through AR, while IKEA’s virtual furnishing app shows exactly how that sofa would look in your living room. Return rates for online purchases have dropped by 23% for retailers implementing these technologies, representing enormous financial and environmental savings.
Zara’s AR displays allow shoppers to point their phones at mannequins that come alive, modeling clothing in motion. Virtual showrooms enable car shoppers to examine vehicles in unprecedented detail, changing colors and features instantly while exploring the interior from any angle. The technology particularly shines for products difficult to stock in conventional retail settings due to size, cost, or infinite customization options.
“We’re seeing conversion rates increase by 40% when customers use our AR tools,” reports Miguel Santos, digital innovation director at a major European retailer. “The technology eliminates the uncertainty that often prevents online purchases.” This certainty translates into higher customer satisfaction and fewer returns—addressing two persistent challenges in e-commerce.
AR navigation within physical stores has created hybrid shopping experiences that combine the convenience of digital with the immediacy of physical retail. Shoppers can point their phones down aisles to see personalized promotions, filter products by dietary restrictions, or follow the most efficient path to gather items on their shopping list. This data-rich shopping experience preserves the sensory aspects of in-person shopping while adding layers of personalization previously only available online.
Experiential retail has found powerful expression through VR installations. Outdoor equipment retailers let customers test tents in virtual mountain settings complete with changing weather conditions. Cosmetic companies offer virtual makeovers with products precisely matched to customers’ skin tones. These experiences drive foot traffic to physical locations while creating memorable brand associations difficult to achieve through conventional marketing channels.
The Surprising Future of Work
Perhaps most profoundly, AR/VR is reinventing workplace collaboration. Virtual meeting spaces have evolved far beyond video calls, creating shared environments where teams manipulate 3D data models together, regardless of physical location. The spatial memory aspects of these interactions—remembering “where” a conversation happened rather than “when”—align with how human cognition naturally organizes information.
Ford Motor Company reduced design review time by 30% by implementing VR collaboration tools, allowing engineers and designers across different continents to examine and modify prototypes simultaneously in virtual space. “We’re saving millions in travel costs,” explains their chief technology officer, “but more importantly, we’re making better decisions faster.” The ability to quickly prototype, test, and iterate within virtual environments has compressed development cycles across industries from automotive to consumer electronics.
Remote maintenance through AR has proven revolutionary for industries with specialized equipment. When machinery breaks down, local technicians wear AR glasses that allow distant experts to see exactly what they see, overlaying instructions and diagrams directly onto the equipment. This application has cut downtime by up to 50% in manufacturing settings. The technology effectively multiplies the reach of specialized expertise, making immediate support available anywhere with an internet connection.
Training for dangerous occupations has been transformed through VR simulation. Firefighters practice navigating through virtually burning buildings without risk. Oil rig workers rehearse emergency procedures in exact digital twins of their specific facilities. Commercial pilots train for rare emergencies in scenarios impossible to safely replicate in physical settings. The psychological fidelity of these training environments—producing genuine stress responses while maintaining complete safety—creates muscle memory and decision-making pathways that transfer directly to real situations.
Knowledge transfer within organizations has discovered unexpected applications in immersive technology. Retiring workers record procedures in immersive environments, creating spatially anchored knowledge repositories that preserve institutional wisdom. New employees learn processes by literally following in the footsteps of experienced workers through AR guidance systems. This approach preserves the invaluable tacit knowledge previously lost with workforce turnover.
The Human Element: Social Connection Through Virtual Means
During global lockdowns, VR social platforms saw explosive growth as people sought meaningful connection. Grandparents attended virtual birthday parties. Friends separated by oceans went on virtual hikes together. Multi-user VR experiences created shared memories despite physical isolation. The technology proved particularly valuable for those with mobility limitations or geographic constraints that predated pandemic restrictions.
“What surprised us was the emotional fidelity,” says Dr. Priya Sharma, social psychologist studying digital interaction. “Our research shows that meaningful connections formed in well-designed virtual spaces trigger the same neurochemical responses as physical presence.” This finding has profound implications for maintaining human relationships across distances. Long-distance couples report stronger relationship satisfaction when incorporating shared VR experiences compared to those limited to video calls and text communication.
Virtual tourism has enabled unprecedented accessibility. Elderly nursing home residents with limited mobility now “visit” the Louvre, explore the Amazon rainforest, or return to childhood neighborhoods. The therapeutic benefits have included reduced depression and improved cognitive engagement, according to several clinical studies. Memory care facilities report particularly striking results, with dementia patients showing increased lucidity and emotional well-being after virtual visits to personally significant locations from their past.
Community formation across geographic boundaries has flourished in VR social platforms. People with rare medical conditions find support groups that would be impossible to assemble locally. Cultural practitioners preserve and share traditions with dispersed community members. Special interest groups collaborate on projects regardless of physical location. These connections address fundamental human needs for belonging and understanding that transcend the limitations of geography.
Creative collaboration has found powerful expression through shared virtual spaces. Musicians separated by continents perform together in virtual venues with negligible latency. Visual artists co-create immersive installations impossible to realize in physical space. Writers workshops bring together participants from around the world in environments specifically designed to stimulate creativity. The technology enables collaboration without compromise, preserving the spontaneity and energy of in-person creative sessions while eliminating the constraints of physical co-location.
Environmental Implications: Unexpected Sustainability Benefits
The environmental impact of widespread AR/VR adoption deserves particular attention. Virtual conferences have demonstrated the ability to reduce carbon emissions from business travel by up to 94% compared to physical events while maintaining most networking benefits. Product prototyping in virtual environments dramatically reduces material waste in design processes. Virtual showrooms eliminate the need for physical samples and display models that often end up discarded.
“We’ve eliminated over 10,000 physical samples annually,” reports the sustainability director at a major furniture manufacturer. “That represents not just material savings, but eliminated shipping, warehousing, and eventual disposal impacts.” Similar effects ripple across industries from fashion to automotive, where physical prototyping has traditionally generated enormous waste streams.
Virtual tourism offers sustainable alternatives to environmentally impactful travel. While not replacing the full spectrum of travel experiences, virtual visits to fragile ecosystems allow greater numbers to appreciate natural wonders without the environmental degradation mass tourism often brings. Cultural sites facing preservation challenges due to visitor impact have similarly embraced virtual access as a conservation strategy.
Remote work enabled through immersive technologies has reduced commuting emissions while preserving collaborative effectiveness. Organizations implementing VR collaboration tools alongside remote work policies report 25-45% reductions in their carbon footprints while maintaining or improving productivity measures. This confluence of business and environmental benefits has accelerated adoption across sectors traditionally resistant to remote work models.
Challenges and Ethical Considerations
Despite these advances, significant challenges remain. The hardware still poses barriers—headsets continue to be bulky, expensive, and occasionally nausea-inducing. Content creation costs remain prohibitively high for many applications. And the digital divide threatens to create new inequalities in access to these transformative technologies. Without deliberate intervention, the benefits of immersive technologies risk flowing primarily to already-privileged populations.
Ethical concerns loom large. Who owns virtual spaces? How do we protect privacy when devices track everything from eye movements to heart rate? What happens when virtual experiences become more compelling than physical reality for vulnerable individuals? The psychological impacts of extended immersion remain inadequately studied, particularly for developing brains.
“We’re writing the rules as we go,” admits Dr. Elijah Washington, digital ethics researcher. “The technology is advancing faster than our ethical frameworks can adapt.” Questions about data sovereignty, informed consent, and exploitation potential require urgent attention as adoption accelerates. Every efficiency gain and novel application brings corresponding responsibility to consider unintended consequences.
Sensory limitations present ongoing challenges. Current technologies primarily engage visual and auditory senses, with haptic feedback still relatively primitive. The absence of smell, taste, and fully convincing touch creates a sensory uncanny valley that reminds users of the technology’s limitations. Research in neurological interfaces and advanced haptics shows promise but remains years from widespread implementation.
Technical barriers include connectivity requirements, processing demands, and battery limitations that constrain truly mobile applications. The infrastructure supporting truly seamless immersive experiences—from 5G networks to edge computing systems—remains unevenly distributed. Creating intuitive user interfaces that accommodate diverse abilities and technical fluency levels presents ongoing design challenges requiring multidisciplinary approaches.
Conclusion: A Reality Revolution Still in Its Infancy
VR and AR have transcended their gaming origins to become powerful tools reshaping how we work, learn, heal, and connect. The most profound applications have emerged not from entertainment but from solving real-world problems across diverse industries. We stand at the threshold of a transformation comparable to the smartphone revolution—a fundamental shift in how humans interact with digital information and with each other through digital mediums.
As hardware becomes less obtrusive and more affordable, these technologies will further integrate into daily life. The coming decade may see AR glasses replace smartphones as our primary digital interface, while VR experiences become increasingly indistinguishable from physical reality. The boundaries between virtual and physical will continue to blur, creating hybrid experiences that leverage the strengths of both realms.
What remains certain is that we’re witnessing the early stages of a reality revolution—one that blurs the boundaries between physical and digital experience in ways that will fundamentally reshape human society, creating possibilities we’ve only begun to imagine. The most transformative applications likely remain undiscovered, awaiting creative minds to identify needs these technologies are uniquely positioned to address.
The ultimate measure of success for these technologies will not be their technical sophistication or market penetration, but their contribution to human flourishing. Will they expand access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunity? Will they strengthen human connections across divides? Will they enhance our capacity to solve pressing global challenges? These questions will determine whether the reality revolution truly delivers on its remarkable promise.
Frequently Asked Questions
How expensive is it to implement VR/AR solutions for business?
Implementation costs vary dramatically based on application complexity and scale. Basic AR applications using existing mobile devices can start under $10,000, while comprehensive enterprise VR solutions may require $100,000+ investments in hardware, software development, and content creation. However, ROI typically materializes through reduced training time, decreased error rates, and improved outcomes—often recouping costs within 12-18 months. Many companies begin with targeted pilot projects addressing specific pain points before scaling to enterprise-wide implementation. Subscription models and platform-as-a-service offerings have recently emerged, reducing initial capital outlays and making these technologies accessible to smaller organizations. The hardware cost curve continues to decline, with enterprise-grade headsets now available at roughly half the price point of equivalent devices three years ago.
What industries will see the biggest VR/AR impact in the next five years?
Healthcare, education, and manufacturing show the highest potential for transformative impact. Healthcare applications alone are projected to grow into a $5.1 billion market by 2027, with patient care, medical training, and therapeutic applications leading adoption. Manufacturing will likely see widespread implementation of AR maintenance and assembly guidance systems, potentially increasing productivity by up to 30%. Education markets are expanding rapidly, with K-12, higher education, and corporate training all implementing immersive learning solutions. Real estate and architecture firms report some of the clearest ROI data, with VR property tours reducing time-to-sale by 31% while increasing buyer satisfaction. Retail continues to invest heavily in both in-store AR experiences and virtual try-on technologies. Logistics and warehouse operations have demonstrated particularly compelling efficiency gains through AR guidance systems, with error reduction rates above 40% in picking and packing operations.
Do people still experience motion sickness with modern VR?
Significant improvements in display refresh rates, reduced latency, and more sophisticated movement tracking have substantially decreased VR-induced discomfort. Modern headsets report discomfort rates below 10% for most applications, compared to nearly 40% with earlier technology. However, individual sensitivity varies, and applications with extensive artificial movement still pose challenges for some users. Best practices in VR development now incorporate comfort features like subtle frame references, teleportation options for movement, and gradual acceleration curves. Acclimatization also plays a role—many users who initially experience mild discomfort find it diminishes after several sessions as their brains adapt to the virtual environment. Hardware innovations continue to address physiological factors contributing to simulation sickness, with eye-tracking technology enabling foveated rendering that better mimics natural visual processing. For particularly sensitive users, augmented reality offers many benefits without the full sensory disconnection that can trigger discomfort in virtual reality.
How is privacy protected in VR/AR environments?
This remains a developing concern. Current VR systems can track eye movements, facial expressions, physiological responses, and physical movements—creating unprecedented personal data streams. Leading companies have implemented encryption, anonymization, and user control features, but comprehensive regulations specifically addressing immersive technology privacy are still emerging in most jurisdictions. Enterprise solutions typically offer more robust privacy controls than consumer platforms, with on-premises data storage options and enhanced encryption protocols. Users should carefully review privacy policies before engaging with immersive platforms, particularly regarding biometric data collection and third-party data sharing practices. Industry consortiums have proposed various self-regulatory frameworks, but these lack enforcement mechanisms and universal adoption. The most concerning aspect involves emotional and cognitive data that users may unconsciously reveal through their interactions within immersive environments—information far more intimate than what most people consciously share on traditional social media platforms.
Can VR truly replace in-person experiences for social connection?
Research shows mixed results. Studies indicate that well-designed virtual social interactions trigger similar neurochemical responses to in-person meetings and can maintain relationship strength across distances. However, subtle aspects of human connection—micro-expressions, unconscious mirroring behaviors, and pheromonal responses—remain difficult to replicate. Most researchers suggest VR serves best as a supplement rather than replacement for physical human interaction. Certain relationships appear more conducive to virtual maintenance than others. Professional collaborations translate effectively to virtual environments, while intimate relationships benefit from at least occasional physical co-presence. The effectiveness depends significantly on implementation quality—high-fidelity avatars with accurate facial expression mapping create stronger connection than simplified representations. Social VR platforms with robust physical simulation allow for proxemic communication—the unconscious distancing and positioning people naturally use to regulate social interaction—which significantly enhances perceived presence. For specific populations with mobility limitations, chronic illness, or geographic isolation, even imperfect virtual connection offers profound benefits otherwise unattainable.
What are the cognitive effects of regular immersion in virtual environments?
Research remains preliminary, but patterns are emerging. Short-term effects include enhanced spatial reasoning abilities, improved attentional control, and strengthened visual processing capabilities among regular VR users. Potential concerns involve context-dependent memory formation—information learned in distinctive virtual environments may be less accessible in different contexts. Some studies suggest potential benefits for cognitive flexibility as users adapt to different virtual physics systems and interaction paradigms. Children appear particularly susceptible to both benefits and risks, with enhanced spatial skills offset by concerns about developing sensory systems and reality discrimination abilities. Long-term studies remain limited by the relatively recent widespread availability of high-quality immersive experiences. The plasticity of the human brain suggests adaptation will occur with regular exposure, though the specifics remain subjects of ongoing research. Preliminary evidence indicates that diverse virtual experiences may enhance cognitive resilience and adaptability—particularly valuable in rapidly changing modern environments.
How accessible are VR/AR technologies for people with disabilities?
Accessibility varies widely across platforms and applications. For people with mobility impairments, VR can offer transformative experiences otherwise inaccessible, though control schemes may require customization. Visual impairments present obvious challenges for visually-oriented media, though haptic and audio-focused applications show promise. Hearing impairments are often well-accommodated through visual alternatives and haptic feedback. Cognitive disabilities require careful consideration in interface design, but the spatial nature of immersive experiences can actually prove more intuitive than abstract desktop interfaces for some users. The most progressive developers implement accessibility features from initial design rather than as afterthoughts, creating experiences accessible to the widest possible audience. Hardware ergonomics remain challenging for some users, particularly those with certain physical disabilities or chronic pain conditions. Several specialized controllers and adaptive systems have emerged to address these limitations, though their compatibility across platforms remains inconsistent. Standards bodies have recently published accessibility guidelines specific to immersive technologies, though adoption remains voluntary and uneven across the industry.
What infrastructure is needed to support enterprise VR/AR implementation?
Network requirements vary by application but generally demand low latency rather than extremely high bandwidth. Most enterprise implementations require dedicated Wi-Fi networks or 5G connectivity to maintain performance, particularly for multi-user applications. Processing can occur either on-device, through edge computing systems, or via cloud services, with tradeoffs between mobility, cost, and performance. Data security represents a particular concern, especially for applications involving sensitive information or critical infrastructure. Integration with existing enterprise systems—from CAD databases to customer management platforms—often presents greater challenges than the immersive technology itself. Physical space requirements depend entirely on the implementation, with some applications requiring dedicated rooms while others function in standard office environments. Staff expertise remains perhaps the most significant infrastructure consideration, with experienced developers commanding premium salaries and implementation requiring cross-functional teams spanning IT, relevant domain expertise, and user experience design.
How are AR and VR changing marketing and customer engagement?
Immersive technologies have transitioned from novelty to strategy in sophisticated marketing approaches. Virtual product experiences demonstrably increase conversion rates while reducing returns, particularly for high-consideration purchases like furniture, real estate, and luxury goods. Brand experiences in virtual environments create stronger emotional connections and memory formation than traditional media, with recall rates 70% higher than for equivalent video content. Virtual events expanded dramatically during pandemic restrictions and continue to draw significant participation, with some hybrid approaches reaching ten times the audience of physical-only predecessors. AR product visualization has become standard in several retail categories, with 32% of smartphone users reporting they’ve used AR shopping tools in the past year. The most effective implementations focus on solving genuine customer pain points rather than technological showcasing—helping customers make confident decisions through enhanced information visualization. Measurement methodologies continue evolving to capture the full impact of immersive experiences, with traditional metrics like click-through rates proving inadequate for evaluating spatial interactions.
What will next-generation VR/AR technology look like?
Hardware miniaturization represents the clearest trajectory, with several companies developing AR glasses approaching the size and weight of traditional eyewear. Display technology continues advancing toward higher resolution, wider field of view, and better color reproduction, with microLED and holographic displays showing particular promise. Battery technology remains a critical constraint for truly mobile applications, with novel power management systems and energy harvesting approaches under development. Haptic feedback systems continue advancing beyond simple vibration toward more sophisticated tactile reproduction, including temperature, texture, and resistance feedback. Environmental understanding through computer vision enables increasingly seamless interaction between virtual and physical elements, particularly critical for AR applications. Neural interfaces represent the most speculative frontier, with several research groups demonstrating early capabilities to control virtual elements through thought alone. The integration of artificial intelligence will likely prove transformative, enabling dynamic content generation, personalized experiences, and intelligent virtual beings that respond naturally to user behavior and needs.
How do you create content for VR and AR applications?
Content creation pathways have diversified significantly as the technology has matured. Traditional 3D modeling tools like Blender, Maya, and Unity remain central to development, though specialized tools focused specifically on immersive content have emerged. Photogrammetry—creating 3D models from photographs—has democratized environment creation, allowing non-technical users to capture physical spaces for virtual reproduction. 360° video represents the most accessible entry point, with consumer-grade cameras now available below $500. AI-assisted creation tools have recently emerged, allowing users to generate or modify 3D assets through natural language descriptions or rough sketches. For AR applications, web-based tools enable marker-based experiences without specialized programming knowledge. Enterprise solutions typically require professional development teams, while consumer and educational content increasingly leverage template-based systems that require minimal technical expertise. The most significant barrier remains the conceptual shift from designing for flat screens to creating for spatial experiences—a transition requiring reevaluation of interface paradigms and user experience principles developed over decades of 2D computing.